Modern Diasporas: the Italian example

The aim of this paper is to examine the migration phenomenon in the current Italian context and to determine whether the notion of diaspora is still applicable. So far the idea of diaspora has been applied to the mass departure in the 20th and 21st century, when the number of Italian migrants reached the same as the population of the whole nation. Buenos Aires and Sao Paolo were semi-Italianized cities, as well as New York and Toronto. Italians have also composed a large component of the labour forces in France, Switzerland, and Germany2.Today, the phenomenon emerges with singular features and different contexts. The flows, engaging the youth generation towards developed countries, are caused by the poor conditions of the Italian economy. Once the decision of leaving Italy was determined by poverty, today the choice to enhance life somewhere else is also influenced by factors like globalization.This paper gives first a brief overview of the Italian diaspora between the two centuries. The second paragraph examines the migrants’ main motivations of leaving, by lying out the context in which they mature their decision. The conclusion highlights the common elements between the past and the current migrations and the possibility of classifying the today flows as a new diaspora.2. A look at the past: the largest Italian Diaspora“Mamma mia, dammi cento lire che in America voglio andar”(Please mommy, give me hundred liras because I want to go to America)This quote comes from a popular song from the late 1800s. The lyric tells about a young woman whose main wish is to leave her country, Italy, and move to the United States. Her story represents the same as a lot of Italians who reached America between the late 1800s and the early 1900s. A number of studies have found that, in those decades, at least 5 million citizens left Italy to travel to New York3, sharing a common purpose: leaving the poverty behind and trying to begin a new life.That mass departure is still considered the largest emigration in the Italian history. Nonetheless, one major drawback of this approach is the assumption of one single diaspora. Gabaccia points out a model with many diasporas, because of the different circumstances in which migrations started within hundred years. Whether considering these movements as one single process or not, it is undoubted that Italy faced a century of migrations whose origins lie in political, economic and social causes4.First of all, between 1876 and 1976, 27 million of Italian citizens moved to Australia, America, and other European countries. What it is known about these numbers is largely based upon statisticians’ studies that recorded both people who left the country and those who applied to get a passport. From 1876 till 1906, the recorded migrants were 7 millions5. By the end of the First World War, it is said a total of 16.6 million Italians had left Italy6; the third wave followed the Second World War till the middle of 1970s7.One of the most significant elements which needs to be considered is the economic situation Italy had to face in those decades. As regards the first moment of the diaspora, Italy – as a new nation trying to build both a sole economy and a sense of “belonging” under the flag of “being Italian” – was experiencing a time of uncertainty due to the quick growth of its population, accompanied with a stagnant economy. For this reason, it was especially among those living in rural and poor villages that the possibility of leaving home and work in a different country spread out. Their abilities as workers in plantations, railroads and factories would have matched job opportunities that did not require a specialization8. Gabacciadraws our attention to the fact that Italian workers joined the construction of central tunnels in Europe, as well as railroads in South America and South Africa. Their contribution in agriculture was also significant in replacing African and Asian laborers in Australia, United States and Brazil9.When the fascism began, Mussolini’s purpose in building other “Italies” around the world forced some residents to leave. The relocation changed the characteristics of the new wave of migrations. Those leaving the country were not unskilled people anymore, but elite migrants such as business men, technical workers. They wished either to contribute to create Italy’s empire, as Mussolini claimed, or to seek professional opportunities, absent at that time in the country10. After the Second World War, most population’s wealth came from agriculture. Although the government introduced reforms to recover from the devastation, for instance by putting portions of land into poor people’s hands, land workers did not get any benefit to improve their conditions. And the solution adopted in the past, i.e. to migrate, started widening again11.After a short time of new migrations, the trend on the Italian diaspora definitely changed because of the better directions of the economy in the 1950s and 1960s. The number of migrants (300.000 ca. a year) dropped and – thanks to the Miracolo Italiano – “ended the country’s long history as one of the world’s most important exporters of labor”12 .3. Migrating in 2000s: causes and outcomesThe real turnaround on Italian migrations emerged after 1976: for the first time after one century, the amount of Italian citizens leaving the country drastically fell down13. Although new departures have involved the Italian population, none of them ended in a mass emigration.This statement is true till the beginning of the 21st century, when a new trend started worldwide. In 1997, Cohen identifies the global migrants with people who are neither the unskilled migrants nor the refugees of the beginning of the century. They are highly educated and their decision tries to “respond to the pull of centres of power and wealth and the new opportunities in trade and industry”14. There are no doubts that the Italian case fits perfectly in this model. A study by the national association Migrantes (2011) reports that four million Italians live abroad today. Detailed examination of the survey showsremarkable trends. First of all, from 2001 to 2005 people who registered as resident abroad doubled, increasing by 53.2%. Nevertheless, in the second half of 2000s, registrations raised by one million between 2006 and 201115.In this preliminary investigation, Van Hear’s study on migration order can be helpful.He identifies a distinction between voluntary and involuntary migrations. It allows classifying the Italian migrations in 2000s as “voluntary” in the way they implicate labour migrants, traders, tourists, students, professionals16. In 2006, the First Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo describes the Italian migrants as successful people, specialized in their field and engaged by research centers, universities, big companies17. Among these people, a relevant percentage covers one of the categories of migrant proposed by the OECD, the highly skilled and business migrants, which includes “some transfer within multinational while others are hired on the international job market”18. This study confirms the characteristics of the Italian migrations. The main reason that pushes young people to leave home and settle in another country is the lack of job opportunities related to their educational background. If they stay in Italy, they would not be able to work in the field of their specialization; instead they would need to accept any kind of job, not necessarily related to their degree. This is the case of most of the PhD students who move abroad. The Fondazione D.A.V.I.N.C.I. says 2000 scholars in their doctorate programme work in a foreign university. In 2010, another survey from the CNR reveals that most of them are people in their middle 30s, settled abroad for at least 10 years, keen on scientific field and pleased by having found a better relocation in a different country, where enhanced systems, higher salaries, more opportunities of career are available19. However, approaches of this kind carry with them various limitations.Recently, economic studies have shown the paradox of the Italian situation, where the highest youth jobless rate in the European Union, but many companies say they have trouble finding skilled employees20.One more aspect can be analyzed in correlation with another study. Richmond in introduces the new category of migrants who are located between two extremes, the proactive and the reactive migrants. It is the case of people who “combine characteristics, responding to economic, social and political pressure over which they have little control, but exercising a limited degree of choice to selection of destinations and the timing of their movements”21. The latest Italian migrations find here a possible explanation. The absence of job openings, the undefined political situation, the poor welfare system represent the circumstances in which Italians make the decision to move to another country, thinking carefully on the selection and the possible time of their staying. According to the OSCE survey on the national economy trend in 2011, Italy’s economy has passed the deep recession.However, the analysis underlines the uncertainty about the prospect of employment which keeps its influence on the young generation’s decisions about their future. This is the same direction followed by the “Unemployment outlook 2011” published by OECD last September. Last statistics reveal that the Italian unemployment rate rose by 2.5 percentage points between 2007 and 2010, getting to 27,9% in June 201122. The unemployment rate has fallen by only one half of a percentage point and the prospect suggests it will remain above its pre-crisis level for some time to come. Nevertheless these data need to be interpreted with caution because these studied have been unable to demonstrate that people who move abroad are always able to find a job. A recent research provides an in-depth analysis on youth unemployment during the crisis, pointing out that, in a recession, handling the job loss is hard for all workers, even though youth unemployment is usually more responsive to the business cycle than adult unemployment23.Another feature of the Italian migrations concerns the role played by globalization whose aspects become relevant in the spread of opportunities for the diasporas rising24. Before 1990, most of the travels were related to particular regions and mainly to a purpose of reunification25. In the last two decades, instead, international mobility has been facilitated, because of cheaper transports. The communication revolution and the political reforms have also allowed the spread of ideas and networks worldwide, making easier for people to move from one country to another26. A OECD survey reports the global emigration rate around the year 2000 was 2.4% and Europe, Latin America and Oceania had the highest emigration rates. One example of the effect of the easy mobility is the education system in the European Union. The European institutions have built links and networks between state policy and cultural producers, increasing chances for connections among institutes and their scholars27. The Erasmus Programme promotes interchanges allowing students to attend their courses in a foreign University. Because of this scheme, also the Italian migrations for an educational purpose have increased. Statistics say that, in 2008/2009, almost 18000 students joined the programme and 1670 had a work experience in another European country. It is also estimated that most of the Italian students move abroad with a temporary perspective, in the aim of using that international experience in a local perspective. However, when it doesn’t happen, a more radical decision is made, that is to look for a permanent position in another country. The reason moves again from the weak conditions of the national economy and the poor confidence in achieving career goals. This tendency finds evidence in a research conducted by EURISPES regarding the change of the Italian population’s attitudes over the last year. The survey highlights the higher inclination of the young generation toward the possibility to migrate to another country. The 60% of young people, most of them highly educated (for example postgraduates), would be ready to move where better opportunities can be found.4. ConclusionThis investigation was undertaken to assess the notion of diaspora and evaluate its use within the modern framework. It was designed to determine if the migrations which have been affecting Italy since the early 2000s can be considered as outset of a new diaspora.This study has shown that, for one century, the Italian migrations were determined by different causes, such as the poverty after the reunification or the bad state of economics during the fascist period. Also during the post-war decades, people decided to migrate to improve their life conditions. Therefore, the most obvious finding of this study is that generally the economic and political conditions played the most relevant role in the Italian exodus towards Australia, America and Europe.The second major outcome was that the new flows of migrations are not too different from the big diaspora. The study has gone some way towards enhancing the understanding of today migrants’ decision to leave their country and join other, sometimes unknown, contexts. The analysis focused on three relevant elements. First of all, the characteristics of the modern migrants, usually highly educated and with technical skills, easy to employ. Secondly, the economic conditions in which Italian youth has grown and the uncertain perspectives about the recovery from the last recession. Finally, the role played by globalization in making the international mobility easier and sojourners abroad possible without big efforts. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for unemployment in pushing people to rethink their lives somewhere else.The present study confirms previous findings on the Italian mass departure and contributes additional evidence that a new diaspora is happening in the country. Although the phenomenon has not reached yet, and probably will not reach, the size of the migrations over the two past centuries, it is significant to be analyzed because of the same impulses it receives by the economic circumstances and the effects it produces both in the national and the destinations’ contexts.Note:1Nicholas Van Hear, New diasporas. UCL Press, London 1998; Robin Cohen, Global diasporas. UCL Press, London 1997.2 Donna Gabaccia, Franca Iacovetta, Women, work and protest in the Italian diaspora: an international research agenda. Canadian Committee on Labour History, Canada 1998, p. 161.3Timothy Hatton and Jeffrey Williamson, Global Migration and the world economy. The MIT Press, Massachusetts, 2005; Donna Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, University of Washington Press, Seattle 2000.4Donna Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, cit.5D. Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, cit; Robert Foster, A statistical survey of Italian Emigration, in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, Oxford, 1908.6D. Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, cit., p. 58.7Gianfausto Rosoli (ed.), Un secolo di emigrazione italiana 1876-1976. CSER, Rome 1978.8D. Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, cit., p. 59.9 Ibid., p. 75.10 Ibid., p. 145.11 Ibid., p. 156.12 Ibid., p. 160.13 Ibid.; Luigi Favero and Graziano Tassello, Cent’anni di emigrazione italiana in Rosoli, Un secolo di emigrazione italiana, cit.14Robin Cohen, Global diasporas, cit, pag. 16415Fondazione Migrantes, Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo. Idos, Rome 2011.16N. Van Hear, New diasporas, cit., p. 42.17Fondazione Migrantes, Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo. Idos, Rome 2006.18Brian Keeley, International Migration. The human face of globalization. OECD, Paris 2009, p. 26.19Fondazione Migrantes, Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo. Idos, Rome 2010.20 Italy takes steps to address flight of talented youth, “Wall Street Journal (Online)”, 11 March 2011.21N. Van Hear, New diasporas, cit., p. 43.22 The Unemployment Outlook. Directorate for Employment, Labour and social affairs, 2011.23Jonathan Chaloff and Georges Lemaitre, Managing highly-skilled Labour Migration: a comparative analysis of migration policies and challenges in OECD countries. Paris 2009.24R. Cohen, Global diasporas, cit., p. 157.25Douglas Massey and Edward Taylor, International Migration – Prospects and policies in a global market. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004, p. 35.26Sarah Spencer, The migration debate. The policy press, Bristol 2011, p. 7.27Simon Marginson and Marijk van der Wende, Globalisation and higher education. Paris: OECD Education Working Paper, 2007.Modern Diasporas: the Italian exampleSerena P Perfetto1. IntroductionThe term diaspora has been generally used to describe those experiences which fall within the Greek notion of speiro (to sow) and dia (over). Especially in the human perspective, Cohen claims, the diaspora is related to the idea of migration and has been thought as a traumatic process for populations who leave their country for different causes, like natural disasters, poverty, pogroms. Yet, recent evidences suggest that, after the end of the Cold war, new forces have driven people to move1. The global world, in which communications, economic systems, cultures are interconnected, becomes the ideal space for people to move.The aim of this paper is to examine the migration phenomenon in the current Italian context and to determine whether the notion of diaspora is still applicable. So far the idea of diaspora has been applied to the mass departure in the 20th and 21st century, when the number of Italian migrants reached the same as the population of the whole nation. Buenos Aires and Sao Paolo were semi-Italianized cities, as well as New York and Toronto. Italians have also composed a large component of the labour forces in France, Switzerland, and Germany2.Today, the phenomenon emerges with singular features and different contexts. The flows, engaging the youth generation towards developed countries, are caused by the poor conditions of the Italian economy. Once the decision of leaving Italy was determined by poverty, today the choice to enhance life somewhere else is also influenced by factors like globalization.This paper gives first a brief overview of the Italian diaspora between the two centuries. The second paragraph examines the migrants’ main motivations of leaving, by lying out the context in which they mature their decision. The conclusion highlights the common elements between the past and the current migrations and the possibility of classifying the today flows as a new diaspora.2. A look at the past: the largest Italian Diaspora“Mamma mia, dammi cento lire che in America voglio andar”(Please mommy, give me hundred liras because I want to go to America)This quote comes from a popular song from the late 1800s. The lyric tells about a young woman whose main wish is to leave her country, Italy, and move to the United States. Her story represents the same as a lot of Italians who reached America between the late 1800s and the early 1900s. A number of studies have found that, in those decades, at least 5 million citizens left Italy to travel to New York3, sharing a common purpose: leaving the poverty behind and trying to begin a new life.That mass departure is still considered the largest emigration in the Italian history. Nonetheless, one major drawback of this approach is the assumption of one single diaspora. Gabaccia points out a model with many diasporas, because of the different circumstances in which migrations started within hundred years. Whether considering these movements as one single process or not, it is undoubted that Italy faced a century of migrations whose origins lie in political, economic and social causes4.First of all, between 1876 and 1976, 27 million of Italian citizens moved to Australia, America, and other European countries. What it is known about these numbers is largely based upon statisticians’ studies that recorded both people who left the country and those who applied to get a passport. From 1876 till 1906, the recorded migrants were 7 millions5. By the end of the First World War, it is said a total of 16.6 million Italians had left Italy6; the third wave followed the Second World War till the middle of 1970s7.One of the most significant elements which needs to be considered is the economic situation Italy had to face in those decades. As regards the first moment of the diaspora, Italy – as a new nation trying to build both a sole economy and a sense of “belonging” under the flag of “being Italian” – was experiencing a time of uncertainty due to the quick growth of its population, accompanied with a stagnant economy. For this reason, it was especially among those living in rural and poor villages that the possibility of leaving home and work in a different country spread out. Their abilities as workers in plantations, railroads and factories would have matched job opportunities that did not require a specialization8. Gabacciadraws our attention to the fact that Italian workers joined the construction of central tunnels in Europe, as well as railroads in South America and South Africa. Their contribution in agriculture was also significant in replacing African and Asian laborers in Australia, United States and Brazil9.When the fascism began, Mussolini’s purpose in building other “Italies” around the world forced some residents to leave. The relocation changed the characteristics of the new wave of migrations. Those leaving the country were not unskilled people anymore, but elite migrants such as business men, technical workers. They wished either to contribute to create Italy’s empire, as Mussolini claimed, or to seek professional opportunities, absent at that time in the country10. After the Second World War, most population’s wealth came from agriculture. Although the government introduced reforms to recover from the devastation, for instance by putting portions of land into poor people’s hands, land workers did not get any benefit to improve their conditions. And the solution adopted in the past, i.e. to migrate, started widening again11.After a short time of new migrations, the trend on the Italian diaspora definitely changed because of the better directions of the economy in the 1950s and 1960s. The number of migrants (300.000 ca. a year) dropped and – thanks to the Miracolo Italiano – “ended the country’s long history as one of the world’s most important exporters of labor”12 .3. Migrating in 2000s: causes and outcomesThe real turnaround on Italian migrations emerged after 1976: for the first time after one century, the amount of Italian citizens leaving the country drastically fell down13. Although new departures have involved the Italian population, none of them ended in a mass emigration.This statement is true till the beginning of the 21st century, when a new trend started worldwide. In 1997, Cohen identifies the global migrants with people who are neither the unskilled migrants nor the refugees of the beginning of the century. They are highly educated and their decision tries to “respond to the pull of centres of power and wealth and the new opportunities in trade and industry”14. There are no doubts that the Italian case fits perfectly in this model. A study by the national association Migrantes (2011) reports that four million Italians live abroad today. Detailed examination of the survey showsremarkable trends. First of all, from 2001 to 2005 people who registered as resident abroad doubled, increasing by 53.2%. Nevertheless, in the second half of 2000s, registrations raised by one million between 2006 and 201115.In this preliminary investigation, Van Hear’s study on migration order can be helpful.He identifies a distinction between voluntary and involuntary migrations. It allows classifying the Italian migrations in 2000s as “voluntary” in the way they implicate labour migrants, traders, tourists, students, professionals16. In 2006, the First Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo describes the Italian migrants as successful people, specialized in their field and engaged by research centers, universities, big companies17. Among these people, a relevant percentage covers one of the categories of migrant proposed by the OECD, the highly skilled and business migrants, which includes “some transfer within multinational while others are hired on the international job market”18. This study confirms the characteristics of the Italian migrations. The main reason that pushes young people to leave home and settle in another country is the lack of job opportunities related to their educational background. If they stay in Italy, they would not be able to work in the field of their specialization; instead they would need to accept any kind of job, not necessarily related to their degree. This is the case of most of the PhD students who move abroad. The Fondazione D.A.V.I.N.C.I. says 2000 scholars in their doctorate programme work in a foreign university. In 2010, another survey from the CNR reveals that most of them are people in their middle 30s, settled abroad for at least 10 years, keen on scientific field and pleased by having found a better relocation in a different country, where enhanced systems, higher salaries, more opportunities of career are available19. However, approaches of this kind carry with them various limitations.Recently, economic studies have shown the paradox of the Italian situation, where the highest youth jobless rate in the European Union, but many companies say they have trouble finding skilled employees20.One more aspect can be analyzed in correlation with another study. Richmond in introduces the new category of migrants who are located between two extremes, the proactive and the reactive migrants. It is the case of people who “combine characteristics, responding to economic, social and political pressure over which they have little control, but exercising a limited degree of choice to selection of destinations and the timing of their movements”21. The latest Italian migrations find here a possible explanation. The absence of job openings, the undefined political situation, the poor welfare system represent the circumstances in which Italians make the decision to move to another country, thinking carefully on the selection and the possible time of their staying. According to the OSCE survey on the national economy trend in 2011, Italy’s economy has passed the deep recession.However, the analysis underlines the uncertainty about the prospect of employment which keeps its influence on the young generation’s decisions about their future. This is the same direction followed by the “Unemployment outlook 2011” published by OECD last September. Last statistics reveal that the Italian unemployment rate rose by 2.5 percentage points between 2007 and 2010, getting to 27,9% in June 201122. The unemployment rate has fallen by only one half of a percentage point and the prospect suggests it will remain above its pre-crisis level for some time to come. Nevertheless these data need to be interpreted with caution because these studied have been unable to demonstrate that people who move abroad are always able to find a job. A recent research provides an in-depth analysis on youth unemployment during the crisis, pointing out that, in a recession, handling the job loss is hard for all workers, even though youth unemployment is usually more responsive to the business cycle than adult unemployment23.Another feature of the Italian migrations concerns the role played by globalization whose aspects become relevant in the spread of opportunities for the diasporas rising24. Before 1990, most of the travels were related to particular regions and mainly to a purpose of reunification25. In the last two decades, instead, international mobility has been facilitated, because of cheaper transports. The communication revolution and the political reforms have also allowed the spread of ideas and networks worldwide, making easier for people to move from one country to another26. A OECD survey reports the global emigration rate around the year 2000 was 2.4% and Europe, Latin America and Oceania had the highest emigration rates. One example of the effect of the easy mobility is the education system in the European Union. The European institutions have built links and networks between state policy and cultural producers, increasing chances for connections among institutes and their scholars27. The Erasmus Programme promotes interchanges allowing students to attend their courses in a foreign University. Because of this scheme, also the Italian migrations for an educational purpose have increased. Statistics say that, in 2008/2009, almost 18000 students joined the programme and 1670 had a work experience in another European country. It is also estimated that most of the Italian students move abroad with a temporary perspective, in the aim of using that international experience in a local perspective. However, when it doesn’t happen, a more radical decision is made, that is to look for a permanent position in another country. The reason moves again from the weak conditions of the national economy and the poor confidence in achieving career goals. This tendency finds evidence in a research conducted by EURISPES regarding the change of the Italian population’s attitudes over the last year. The survey highlights the higher inclination of the young generation toward the possibility to migrate to another country. The 60% of young people, most of them highly educated (for example postgraduates), would be ready to move where better opportunities can be found.4. ConclusionThis investigation was undertaken to assess the notion of diaspora and evaluate its use within the modern framework. It was designed to determine if the migrations which have been affecting Italy since the early 2000s can be considered as outset of a new diaspora.This study has shown that, for one century, the Italian migrations were determined by different causes, such as the poverty after the reunification or the bad state of economics during the fascist period. Also during the post-war decades, people decided to migrate to improve their life conditions. Therefore, the most obvious finding of this study is that generally the economic and political conditions played the most relevant role in the Italian exodus towards Australia, America and Europe.The second major outcome was that the new flows of migrations are not too different from the big diaspora. The study has gone some way towards enhancing the understanding of today migrants’ decision to leave their country and join other, sometimes unknown, contexts. The analysis focused on three relevant elements. First of all, the characteristics of the modern migrants, usually highly educated and with technical skills, easy to employ. Secondly, the economic conditions in which Italian youth has grown and the uncertain perspectives about the recovery from the last recession. Finally, the role played by globalization in making the international mobility easier and sojourners abroad possible without big efforts. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for unemployment in pushing people to rethink their lives somewhere else.The present study confirms previous findings on the Italian mass departure and contributes additional evidence that a new diaspora is happening in the country. Although the phenomenon has not reached yet, and probably will not reach, the size of the migrations over the two past centuries, it is significant to be analyzed because of the same impulses it receives by the economic circumstances and the effects it produces both in the national and the destinations’ contexts.1Nicholas Van Hear, New diasporas. UCL Press, London 1998; Robin Cohen, Global diasporas. UCL Press, London 1997.2 Donna Gabaccia, Franca Iacovetta, Women, work and protest in the Italian diaspora: an international research agenda. Canadian Committee on Labour History, Canada 1998, p. 161.3Timothy Hatton and Jeffrey Williamson, Global Migration and the world economy. The MIT Press, Massachusetts, 2005; Donna Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, University of Washington Press, Seattle 2000.4Donna Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, cit.5D. Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, cit; Robert Foster, A statistical survey of Italian Emigration, in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, Oxford, 1908.6D. Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, cit., p. 58.7Gianfausto Rosoli (ed.), Un secolo di emigrazione italiana 1876-1976. CSER, Rome 1978.8D. Gabaccia, Italy’s many diaspora, cit., p. 59.9 Ibid., p. 75.10 Ibid., p. 145.11 Ibid., p. 156.12 Ibid., p. 160.13 Ibid.; Luigi Favero and Graziano Tassello, Cent’anni di emigrazione italiana in Rosoli, Un secolo di emigrazione italiana, cit.14Robin Cohen, Global diasporas, cit, pag. 16415Fondazione Migrantes, Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo. Idos, Rome 2011.16N. Van Hear, New diasporas, cit., p. 42.17Fondazione Migrantes, Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo. Idos, Rome 2006.18Brian Keeley, International Migration. The human face of globalization. OECD, Paris 2009, p. 26.19Fondazione Migrantes, Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo. Idos, Rome 2010.20 Italy takes steps to address flight of talented youth, “Wall Street Journal (Online)”, 11 March 2011.21N. Van Hear, New diasporas, cit., p. 43.22 The Unemployment Outlook. Directorate for Employment, Labour and social affairs, 2011.23Jonathan Chaloff and Georges Lemaitre, Managing highly-skilled Labour Migration: a comparative analysis of migration policies and challenges in OECD countries. Paris 2009.24R. Cohen, Global diasporas, cit., p. 157.25Douglas Massey and Edward Taylor, International Migration – Prospects and policies in a global market. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004, p. 35.26Sarah Spencer, The migration debate. The policy press, Bristol 2011, p. 7.27Simon Marginson and Marijk van der Wende, Globalisation and higher education. Paris: OECD Education Working Paper, 2007.